定冠词
1 漫谈“定冠词+复形名词”结构
1 漫谈“定冠词+复形名词”结构
大凡碰到英语复形名词,我们就得多加小心,断不可等闲视之。这大概是由于我们的汉语名词没有数形变化的缘故。说到“定冠词+复形名词”结构,就更须注意,因为汉语也没有冠词。
关于这种结构,一般语法书限于篇幅,只简单地介绍一些特指或类指的用法,如:
(1)How do you like the books ?
(2)The Chinese people are industrious and brave.
还有如the Alps, the Philippines, the Lius等等。但问题并不如此简单,即以特指而论,有些用法也不是中国学生可以一目了然的。比如说:
(3)The air is very clear after the rains .
这句就会引起疑问: 为何用复形rains呢? 它可以数吗? 它会意谓“雨季”(根据词典)吗?
从句子本身来看,rains显然不可数,也不大可能意谓“雨季”。它在此乃是意谓“连绵不断的雨”(亦可作“大雨”解),正如the waters, the snows, the winds, the sands等常因有连绵不断之义一样。再如:
(4)“We have been stranded half an hour,” he said. “The cars have gone by and I have thought when will a Good Samaritan appear?”
句中“他”的车在半路上抛了锚,许多来往车辆都不停下来帮他忙,后来终于等到了一个Good Samaritan(助人为乐的好人),于是他就对他说了这番话。句中的the cars原来是说话人特指那些不停下来帮他的来往车辆而言的。再如:
(5)But where are the telephones ?
这句话的上文是说有一对青年男女,在某一大楼内,女方想与某地一友人取得联系,男方建议她打长途电话,女方便提出此问题。读者可能会问: 为什么不用单形telephone呢? 这就牵涉到一个英语特点的问题。从汉语习惯来说,这里所谓的“电话”自然不会有复念,因为一个人绝不会同时用一部以上的电话。但从英语习惯来说,用复形telephones则是很自然的。 原因很简单,因为英语里有“the+复形名词”结构之故。用了这种结构,即可表达那幢大楼绝不会只有一部电话机。女方问这些电话机在哪儿的含义就是: 楼里的那些电话机在哪儿呢? 我找到之后就可以用其中任何一部了。你看,由于语言不同,不但表达方法不同,连人的心理活动也不完全一样。
了解到这一点,下面一些常见的“the+复形名词”结构就不难理解了:
(6)Her countenance is like the flowers and the moon. (the flowers指说话人以及听话人所常见的那些花中的任何一朵)
(7)He was just as carefully dressed as ever, and he wore the careful Bond Street neckties just as before, and from the top he looked just as smart and impressive as ever. (句中的he绝不会将从Bond Street买来的精致领带全都戴在颈上,只能一次戴其中的一条)
按常理而言,下面一句中的the parks也只会指当地公园中的任何一个:
(8)Once in a while we go to the parks .
但如将句中的动词go to代之以visit, the parks就可能指一个以上甚至所有的公园了。 请再看:
(9)I've been at the tubs all day. I thought I'd take a rest.
说这句话的人是一位洗衣妇,意思是她洗了一天的衣服,想休息休息。这里的the tubs可能指任何一个洗衣盆,但也可能指一个以上,如果洗衣过程需要的话。
下面一句中的the shops则很可能指一个以上:
(10)If you are going to the shops , please bring back some potatoes.
“定冠词+复形名词”结构还有一种表特指的用法。在这种用法中,定冠词可以说是相当于物主代词,如:
(11)One drives a car or a taxi, and the passengers ride in it. (the相当于one's或his)
(12)“I am a waif in spirit,” the woman said. “It is why the audiences respond with such emotion when I sing.” (the audiences相当于my audiences)
应该指出,在上述结构中,定冠词并不完全等同于物主代词。概括地说,前者强调典型性或一般性,后者强调特殊性或固有性。
现在让我们谈谈“the+复形名词”的类指用法。
我们最熟悉的类指说法有表民族的,如the Chinese, the Germans; 有表阶级的,如the workers; 有表政党的,如the Conservatives。这些我们就不谈了。下面我们指出一些可能为中国学生不甚熟悉的类指情况。
我们知道,定冠词的基本用法就是将某事物与其他事物区别开来。由于它有区别性,因而它往往也具有表对比或对照的职能。如:
(13)In the cities the state provides old age pensions and low cost housing. (the cities与the countryside相对而言)
(14)It's all very fine and easy to talk about the clever men ; but where are they? (the clever men与the stupid men相对而言)
动植物学为什么也可用“the+表动、植物的复形名词”结构表类属呢? 主要也是为了强调其区别性或对比性,如:
(15)Enormous numbers of mollusks rival the echinoderms for supremacy as the dominant tide-pool inhabitants. (the echinoderms强调区别性)
(16)Different trees vary in their response to fertilization. The conifers , especially, do not require rich soils. (the conifers强调对比性 )
人常常是以自己为中心的,从而万物与人也呈现出一种对比关系。如:
(17)Man is superior to the animals in that he uses language to convey his thoughts.
句中之所以用the animals,就是因为它是与人相对而言的缘故。我们常用的非特指的the birds, the plants等皆属此类。
也是由于人常以自己为中心的原因,所以“the+复形名词”结构常可用来表示人体各部分, 如:
(18)A toothbrush is a small brush used for cleaning the teeth . (the teeth专指人的牙齿)
(19)A footstool is a low stool for resting the feet on. (the feet专指人的双脚)
(20)The bright morning sun dazzled the eyes , the snow had ceased, the mists had vanished. (the eyes专指人的眼睛)
(21)Nothing seems to change in New England, only the faces . (the faces专指人的面孔)
(22)The sounds became so deadened that the change is like putting cotton in the ears. (the ears专指人耳)
“the+复形名词”结构不但可以表示人体的各部分,还可以表示人的病痛和感情,如:
(23)The Chinese doctors prescribed a course of treatment with needles for the headaches , insomnia and fatigue. (表人的病痛)
(24)He was not so successful in the realm of the emotions , as was necessary in the case of Clyde. (表人的感情)
还有一些类指的“the+复形名词”已成为固定习语,需要一一牢记,如the series, the stars(星系),the provinces(与首都相对的地方),the pictures (movies), the masses, the crops, the arts, the rules and regulations等。
最后,请注意同是用“the+复形名词”结构,其意义则常有区别,试比较:
(25)The Chinese are industrious and brave.
(26)The tragedy, though in its first public staging in China, is not unfamiliar to the Chinese .
例(25)中的the Chinese显然指全体中国人,但例(26)中的the Chinese则指有关的那部分中国人。再如:
(27)The people of Packingtown had lost their strike, if ever a people had.
(28)Linda says the people in Paris are very excited about her work and her possibilities.
同样,例(27)中的the people指Packingtown的全体人民或矿工,例(28)中的the people则指巴黎的绘画界或有关人士。
饶有兴味的是,有时“the+复形名词”与“零冠词+复形名词”却区别不大,可以通用,如 :
(29)Traffic had to be diverted because the roads were under water. (亦可用roads)
(30)The leaves are out. (亦可用leaves)
(31)The Germans are industrious. (亦可用Germans)
当然,严格说来,它们之间还是有区别的: “the+复形名词”要比“零冠词+复形名词”精确些、具体些。
讲到时日,“the+复形名词”与“零冠词+复形名词”常有区别,如:
(32)The days passed.
句中的the days显然是有限地泛指时日,如用days, 则指a number of days。但也有例外,如既可说in the old days,也可以说in old days。再如:
(33)The times have changed.
句中的the times在口语中则常用times。不少人认为times之前省去了the,但有的语法家并不这样看,他们认为它是“零冠词+复形名词”结构。
2 “the+复形名词”可类指
有人问: 在钱歌川著的《英文疑难详解》第608页上有这样一句话:
(1)The horses are useful animals.
并说这里的定冠词加上复数名词亦表一类人或物。不知你的看法如何?
钱先生所举的例子与所作的说明不错。我们也同意钱先生所说的例(1)中的the horses这种说法“更为精确”,但“较为少见”。所以,一般语法书皆不列入。
据我们所知,像the horses这样的说法多出现在比较专门的科学论著中。如在动物学中,我们会遇到这样的句子:
(2)Enormous numbers of mollusks, representing a great variety of orders and families, rival the echinoderms for supremacy as the dominant tide pool inhabitants.
(3)The neotropical region is characterized by such forms as the armadillos , the sloths , the anteaters , the long-tailed monkeys , the llamas , and many other forms not found anywhere else.
在植物学中,我们也会遇到“the+复形植物名称”的用法,如:
(4)The number of plants which depend upon the transference of pollen by the wind is very great, embracing as it does large families, such as that of the cone-bearing trees , the grasses and the sedges .
(5)The stigmas of wind-pollinated flowers which catch the dust-like pollen are brushlike, as in the hazels ; feathery, as in most grasses; or prolonged and thread-like, as in Indian corn.
(6)Different trees vary in their responses to fertilization...The conifers , especially, do not require rich soils.
从上述例句中,我们可以看出,“the+复形名词”的确可以用以表示一类事物。但为什么它可以这样用呢? 为什么它一般都用在科学论著中呢? 我们认为,还是应该从定冠词本身去找原因。我们知道,定冠词的基本职能是特指: 或在同类中特指一物以区别于他物;或在不同类中特指一类以区别于他类。“the+复形名词”在此的用法实际上与“the+单形名词”的用法并无不同,二者皆根据定冠词的基本职能而表示一类事物,只不过“the+复形名词”含有复数概念(表整体性和差异性)罢了。钱歌川先生(还有别的语法家)之所谓“更为精确”当然是与表泛指的“零冠词+复形名词”比较而言,其实也可以说是“the+复形名词”表特指一类事物的注脚。
照此说来,上述诸例中的复形名词乃是特指一类(区别于其他类)而非泛指一类事物啰?是的,正是如此。科学论著中,如动、植物学,之所以常用这种结构,也正是需要强调特指一类、一门、一属等以区别于其他类、门、属等的原故。如果对上述例(2)、(3)、(4)、(5)的特指一类(有别于其他类)的含义需要从所摘自的全部著作去看的话,例(6)中的the conifers的特指区别于其他树木的含义则在具体的上下文中已是很清楚的了。
经过上述分析,我们就可以把例(1)中的the horses的用法与日常生活中的特指一类(有别于其他类)的“the+复形名词”联系在一起了。现在且让我们举几例来看看我们在日常生活中是怎样运用这种结构的:
(7)Man is weaker than the animals . (the animals用以区别于man,如无此含义而仅泛指一类,则用零冠词,如:What do you know about animals?)
(8)In the eighteenth century, when logic and science were the fashion, women tried to talk like the men . (用the men以区别于women,若无此意,则须用零冠词,如妇女有时说的:Men are like that.)
(9)A toothbrush is a small brush used for cleaning the teeth .
(此处用the teeth以区别于其他身体部分,类似的还有the eyes, the ears, the arms, the feet以及the lungs等。如不强调此意,则应用零冠词,如:A dentist fixes teeth.)
(10)The jeeps are not cheap in China. (用the jeeps以区别于the cars等)
(11)I saw the new film in London; it's not yet being shown in the provinces . (the provinces意谓“地方”,用以区别于the capital London)
(12)The many sounds become so deadened that the change is like putting cotton in the ears . (用the ears的理由与例[9]的the teeth相同)
(13)Translation can at best tell us about poetry and the poets . (the poets用以区别于从事其他工作的人)
由上面所举的几例可以看出,特指一类的“the+复形名词”与泛指一类的“零冠词+复形名词”显然是不尽相同的,有时二者的意义甚至截然不同。试比较下列两句:
(14)English is the easiest of languages.
(15)English is the easiest of the modern languages.
例(14)由于languages用的是零冠词,表示泛指,所以全句并无比较之意,即English is a very easy language.。但例(15)由于modern languages前有定冠词,所以全句有了比较的意思,即Of the modern languages English is the easiest.。
特指一类的“the+复形名词”结构与泛指一类的“零冠词+复形名词”结构还有一点不同,即前者必须真实,后者则可虚构,如可以说:
(16)Hobgoblins are a popular theme in literature. (因为hobgoblins有if they exist的含义。但不可在hobgoblins或单形hobgoblin之前用定冠词,因为用上定冠词即含有“真实存在”之意)
上述两种结构在实际运用中有时是否具有相同意义或者说在意义上几乎无甚区别呢? 是的。
常见的无甚区别的情况似乎有下列几种:
1. 两种结构指一国的人民或民族时,二者意义可以说是相同的,如下面两句:
(17)Germans are industrious.
(18)The Germans are industrious.
2. 可能是由于报纸等大众媒介常用零冠词的原故,在当代英语里,即使特指一类的复形名词有时也用零冠词,如:
(19)When leaves fall and flowers rade, great people are found in their country-seats.
(20)The task before Liberals and Free Traders is to drive home the fact that the Opposition policy is one of food taxes as a preliminary to full-blooded Protection.
顺便提及,在形容词最高级后的of短语中的复形名词虽然特指一类,亦常用零冠词,如:
(21)Riding is the most healthy of exercises .
(22)The greatest of faults is to be conscious of none.
同样,下列一些说法中的复形名词亦用零冠词:
(23)a prince of dreamers
(24)the sin of sins
(25)in his heart of hearts
可能有的读者要问,在
(26)Wolves eat men.
这一句中,men之前为什么不用定冠词the? 它不也区别于wolves特指一类吗? 不,men在此并无区别于wolves的含义。它们并不属于同一大类,故无相互有别的关系。在这一句中,men和wolves一样,都是泛指一类的复形名词,不是特指一类的复形名词。
下面一句中的复形名词men和women表示一种对照关系,并不强调相互有别之意,故亦须用零冠词:
(27)Women are said to have stronger attachments than men.
最后请注意下面一些例句中的复形名词皆非特指一类事物,而是特指部分的事物:
(28)The flowers are out. (≠所有的花或花类)
(29)The birds are singing. (≠鸟类)
(30)The stars are bright. (≠所有的星)
(31)He wants to know about the trains . (指一地或一国的火车行车时间和票价等)
(32)The shops are busy before Christmas. (亦指一地或一国的商店)
3 季节前为什么用the?
有一读者问: 语法书上讲表示季节的名词之前不用冠词,但高中英语课文中的Winter Sleep一课却都用了定冠词the。为什么? 是不是科技文章就应该这样?
先让我们将这篇课文中含有季节词的句子以及与其有关的句子全部抄录如下:
(1)Some birds will fly away to the south when the weather turns cold. Other birds and all animals stay with you, but you will not see all the animals all through the winter. In the cold weather some of them hibernate.
(2)Hibernating in that way, the animal can sleep all through the winter. You might wonder how it manages to live without eating for so many months. The answer lies in two facts. The first is it has stored supples of fat in its body during the summer and autumn.
(3)They sleep during the winter but their sleep is not such a deep one, and their body temperature does not drop. In the autumn the bear eats and eats and becomes very fat indeed... On warm winter days he may think that spring has arrived; he gets up and walks around.
(4)The squirrel is an animal which makes secret food stores for the winter.
从上述四例可以看到,春夏秋冬四季都包括在内。其中winter, summer和autumn之前的确都有定冠词,但spring前却用的是零冠词(即不用任何冠词)。另外,我们怀疑是否会有一本语法书讲表示季节的名词之前一律不用冠词。
现在让我们具体地探讨一下上述四例中的季节词的用法吧:
1. 例(1)与例(2)中的all through the winter用定冠词比较容易解释,显然是与all through有关。我们知道,all through或through或throughout后接时间词时,这个时间词前一般须用定冠词the,如all through the night, through the week, throughout the year等 。季节词当然也是一样。那么为什么all through与时间词之间须用定冠词the呢? 我们猜想可能是由于这种时间词不代表时间的一点而是有意表示一个具体的或特定的过程的缘故。
2. 例(2)中的during the summer and autumn与例(3)中的during the winter则与介词during有关。与all through一样,介词during也一般须后接“the+时间词”,如during the day, during the night, during the week等。其理由与all through the winter同。
3. 例(3)中spring之前为什么没有冠词呢? 据语法家们说,当说一个季节即将来临或刚刚来临时,一般不用冠词。spring has arrived即意味着刚刚开始,故不用冠词,再如:
(5)Summer approaches.
(6)Winter came early that year.
(7)We often have a spell of hot weather after the beginning of autumn. (注意这里如用美国英语fall[秋天],前面须用定冠词the)
4. 最后一个问题就是如何解释例(3)in the autumn与例(4)for the winter中的定冠词the了。我们知道,在季节词前是否用定冠词,往往随人随时而异,并无一成不变的规则可以遵循 。但不少语法家都指出下列情况下常用定冠词the:
1. 显然特指某一季节时,如:
(8)Her book will be published in the autumn. (= the autumn of this year)
(9)Where do you spend the summer — by the sea or in the mountains? (= the coming summer)
2. 不强调时间而表示季节的内涵时,如:
(10)In the spring he swam in the rivers. (表示大地回春,天已转暖,冰雪已化等)
(11)The winter was coming on. (暗示寒冷的冬天)
(12)They had done with summer before the summer came.(第一个summer纯指时期,故无冠词;第二个summer有夏热的内涵,故前有定冠词the)
根据上述分析,我们倾向于例(3)的the autumn与例(4)的the winter也都有各自的内涵: 前者暗示秋天是收获季节,熊可尽情地吃;后者则暗示严寒肃杀万木枯干的冬天。
4 这里的 her 是否应改为 the?
有人问:初中英语书第五册第52页倒数第3行“...had been blind in her left eye”中的 her 是否应为 the?
在这种表人或动物身体部分的句子结构中,用物主代词或定冠词 the 一般都是对的。但二者有区别:前者强调身体部分为主语所特有的性质,后者则强调身体部分的典型性或一般性。据此,可以看出这里还是用 her 较好,因为这里的 left eye 显然不很典型。但如在:
He sat on the desk, the left foot on the floor.
这一句子中,left foot 之前就应用表典型性的定冠词 the了。
5 by the hour是什么意思?
有人问: 有一道选择题:
(1)The workers in this factory are paid by _____.
A. hour B. the hour C. an hour D. hours
答案是B,请问是什么意思?
你如有《朗文英汉双解词典》,可查the的义项⑥(用于度量之前);你如有《新英汉词典》,可查the的义项⑧(与表示计算单位的名词连用,含“每”,“每一”的意思)。这是定冠词the的一种习惯用法。介词by是“按照”的意思。再如:
(2)paid by the day 按日付工资
(3)paid by the week 按周付工资
(4)paid by the piece 计件工资
6 为什么选用 the old ones?
有人问:有这样一道选择题:
(1)He bought some pencils and he threw away _____.
A. one B. ones C. old ones D. the old ones
我选了C,而老师的答案是D,请问哪个答案正确?为什么?
你的老师的答案是正确的,应选用 the old ones。这里之所以应选用 the old ones 是为了要与 some pencils 所暗含的 the new pencils 进行对比的缘故。我们知道,定冠词 the 常用来表示对比,再如:
(2)I like the country better than the town . (用 the 对比 country 与 town)
(3)Besides the poison , there is the antidote . (用 the 对比 poison 与 antidote)
(4)The end justifies the means . (用 the 对比 end 与 means)
(5)You are the masters , we are the chattels . (用 the 对比 masters 与 chattles)
有时 the 所表示的对比两方中有一方则是暗含着的,你所问的问题中暗含的 the new pencils 即是一例。再如:
(6)He was from the town . (the town 与所暗含的 the country 相对比)
(7)The day starts at 10 a.m. and ends soon after evening falls in Lhasa. (the day 与所暗含的 the night相对比)
我们在电话中常说:
(8)The wrong number . 你打错号码了。
它也是与所暗含的 the right number 相对比的。
7 如何解释to the touch中的the?
有人问: 在一本英国小说中遇到这样一个句子:
(1)She went and raked at the coke; the stove was cold to the touch.
cold to the touch.
为何用the?
to the touch是一常见的固定词组,常置于形容词之后,直译的话,应是“对触觉而言”,但实际上常意译为“摸起来或摸上去(感到)”,如上述(1)中的cold to the touch即可译作“摸上去冰凉”。再如:
(2)This is soft to the touch .
(3)That is smooth to the touch .
(4)Natural fabrics feel much nicer to the touch .
那么touch之前为何有一定冠词the呢?这就牵涉到另一个问题,即“定冠词+人体一部分”的用法。我们知道,泛指人体一部分时,英语常用“定冠词+单形名词”,实例如:
(5)The brain is the centre of thought.
(6)He said it was a feast for the eye as well as the palate .
(7)A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
(8)It is the ear , not the eye , which is the true test of verse.
(9)She began to swing her arms, up and down, from the shoulder .
(10)Education aims at removing fetters from the mind .
(11)Whenever I make any slips of the tongue , she is always the first person to correct me.
(12)A simple instance of a servo-system at work is the flexion reflex. This occurs when the foot , for example, receives a painful stimulus and is withdrawn by the flexion of the leg .
而touch(触觉)亦是人体的一部分,故而泛指时其前亦应用定冠词。