缩合连接代词
1 谈如何命名what(=that which)
1 谈如何命名what(=that which)
代词what的用法很多。它可以用作疑问代词,引导一个直接疑问句,如:
(1)What do you want?
也可以引导一个间接疑问句,如:
(2)I don't know what you want.
但what有时并不用作疑问代词,而是相当于that which或the things which等,如:
(3)What I want is water. (what=the thing that)
(4)What I want are apples. (what=the things that)
这两句中的what应该唤作什么代词呢? 在这个问题上,语法学家们是有不同看法的。有的认为是关系代词(关于应唤作什么关系代词亦有争论),有的认为是连接代词。我们觉得这两种看法都不够准确。把what唤作关系代词的不妥之处在于它没有先行词,而没有先行词的关系代词是不易被人们接受的。把what只唤作连接代词的不妥之处至少有三点:
1. 连接代词的范围较广,除包括what (=that which)之类的代词外,它还包括引导间接疑问句的疑问词,如上述例(2)中的what。有的语法著作还认为连接代词应包括更多的内容。
2. 如将what (=that which)之类的代词唤作连接代词,那么,其用法与它相似的where (=the place where)之类的副词势必相应地应唤作连接副词,而连接副词则通常皆指可用作连词的副词而言,这样徒增连接副词的内容,无疑是不必要的。
3. 连接代词未指出what(=that which)的缩合性,从而也未指出它所内含一关系代词的特殊性。
我们初步认为,至少从实用语法的观点出发,将what (=that which)之类的代词唤作缩合连接代词(condensed conjunctive pronoun)较好。这样命名至少有下列几点好处:
1. 它指出了这种代词所引导的名词性从句等与主句的连接关系。
2. 它指出了这种代词的缩合性,譬如what是由that which缩合而成的,从而也说明了它内含关系代词的特殊性。
3. 它划定了这种代词的范围,说明它既不同于关系代词,也不同于其他连接代词。
4. 相应地,其用法与这种代词相似的副词亦可唤作缩合连接副词(condensed conjunctive adverb),以区别于一般连接副词。
这种缩合连接代词包括哪些代词呢? 现让我们把这些代词举例说明如下:
what (=the thing/things that)例见上述例(3)、(4),再如:
(5)I admire what he says and what he does.
(what=the things that, 注意这里的两个what从句指两个不同的事物,如指同一事物,第二个what须改作which或that)
(6)What we need is books.
(what=the things that,谓语动词用is或are皆可)
(7)I eat what I like.
(what=that which, 但that which较为正式)
(8)He renounced what are generally called social pleasures.
(为了教学上的方便,我们常把what are generally called唤作插入语,实际上,what在此相当于the things that,引导一宾语从句)
(9)I gave him what help I could.
(what在此用作定语,what help=any help that)
(10)They asked me what I didn't know.
(what在此有歧义:可能是缩合连接代词,即the things that; 也可能是引导间接疑问句的疑问词。应视上下文而定)
who (=the person/persons who),如:
(11)Who breaks pays.
(who=anyone who或he who,但who的这种用法比较古旧,现已少见)
(12)He shows his teeth, as who should say, “Dear me!”
(as who should say是一种固定说法,其义为one might almost say, 在此who=one who)
(13)Tom may marry who (m)he likes.
(who/whom在这里相当于anyone whom,注意从句只能用like, please, choose, want, wish等动词)
(14)You are not who I thought you were.
(who=the person who,常用于表语从句)
that (=one who, the thing/things that): that用作缩合连接代词时只限于一些习语和强调名词的分裂句,如:
(15)Handsome is that handsome does.
(习语,意谓“做得漂亮才是漂亮”,在此that=he who)
(16)It's his strong will that enables him to work tirelessly. (that=that which)
which (=any one that),如:
(17)You can take which you like.
(which=any one that,从句只可用like, choose, please, want, wish等动词)
whatever, whoever, whichever等带有-ever的代词也都是缩合连接代词。这种代词有any的含义,语气亦较强。现将其含义与用法举例说明如下:
whatever (=any thing/things that),如:
(18)I will do whatever I can do. (语气较what强)
whoever (=any person/persons who),如:
(19)Whoever is in top form wins the game when two matched players meet.
whichever (=any one/ones that),如:
(20)You can take whichever you like.
(语气较which强)
这种带-ever的缩合连接代词所引导的从句还可以用作让步状语,有“不论”的含义,如:
(21)I'll stand by you whatever happens. (whatever=no matter what)
(22)The final between the two teams, whatever the result, was splendid. (注意result后省去了it was)
(23)Whoever says so, it's not true. (whoever=no matter who)
(24)Her sister — or her friend — whichever it was — was an uncommonly pretty girl. (whichever=no matter which)
whether在古旧的英语中也本是缩合连接代词,等于which of the two,现已废弃,但仍可用于让步状语从句,等于no matter whether,如:
(25)I shall go, whether you come with me or stay at home.
英语里除了缩合连接代词外,还有一种缩合连接副词。这种连接副词与一般连接副词不同:前者是一种具有缩合性(内含一关系副词 )并在其所引导的名词性从句与主句之间起连接作用的副词,后者则只是一种相当于等立连词的副词。现将一些缩合连接副词的缩合性及其用法举例说明如下:
when (=the time when),如:
(26)You don't know when you are lucky.
where (=the place where),如:
(27)That's where Lu Xun once lived.
why (=the reason why),如:
(28)That's why I didn't come to class.
带有-ever的缩合连接副词常用以引导状语从句,含有“任何”或“无论”等意义。它们是:
whenever,如:
(29)Come and see me whenever you want to. (whenever=at any time that)
(30)I go to see him whenever I have a chance. (whenever=at every time that)
wherever,如:
(31)Sit wherever you like. (wherever=at any place where)
(32)Wherever I am I will be thinking of you. (wherever=no matter where)
however, 如:
(33)The painting still looks wrong however you look at it. (however=no matter how)
总之,我们倾向于在所谓连接代词和连接副词之前加上“缩合”二字。这样不仅表现了它的连接代(副)词的性质,同时也表现了它所内含的关系代(副)词的性质。所谓“缩合”, 基本上即是先行词与关系代(副)词的缩合。“缩合”(condensed)一词并非笔者所杜撰,早已为一些语法学家们所用。笔者只不过在此提出“缩合连接代(副)词”供读者参考而已。
2 这里必须选用what
有读者问: 有一道选择题:
(1)They lost their way in the forest, and _________made matters worse was that night began to fall.
A. that B. it C. which D. what
答案是D而不是C,为什么?
这里必须用what。what在此相当于that which,语法上唤作连接代词(或缩合连接代词),可引导名词性从句。此处的what made matters worse是一主语从句,即that which made matters worse,可直译为“把事情弄得更糟的那一种情况”(一般应译作“更糟糕的是”)。这种what更常译作“所……”,如:
(2)What I say is true.我所说的都是真的。
(3)Did you hear what I said?你听见我(所说)的话了吗?
(4)That's what I wanted to say.我(所)想说的就是这些。
3 如何分析what?
有读者问: 在某年全国硕士研究生入学英语考试中,有一题如下:
(1)In what_________to a last minute stay of execution, a council announced that emergency funding would keep alive two aging satellites.
A. applies B. accounts
C. attaches D. amounts
请问如何分析这里的what?
首先应该指出这里应选D, amounts to(等于)。what amounts to a last minute stay of execution的意思是“事情已等于到了最后即将延期执行的时刻”。what是通常所谓的连接代词(我们则宁愿将它唤作缩合连接代词),等于that which。再如:
(2)What's done cannot be undone.覆水难收。
(3)There is truth in what you said.
(4)That's what I want do say.
(5)I eat what I like.
(6)What I want is water.
这种what还可以用作定语,如:
(7)I gave him what help I could.(what help I could = the help which I could give)
(8)Lend me what books you can. (what books you can = the books which you can lend me)
等于that (those)which的what往往相当于汉语中的“所”,如上述许多例句皆可用“所”来译。但有时则须另想译法,如上述例(1)与例(2)。
4 如何理解这里的what?
有读者问: 有这样一个句子:
(1)As for the winter, it is inconvenient to be cold, with most of what furnace fuel is allowed saved for the dawn.
如何分析with...the dawn? 如何分析what? 其义如何?
with most of...the dawn是一独立分词结构,其逻辑主语是most,其逻辑谓语是过去分词短语saved for the dawn。如进一步分析,则应是:of... is allowed是一介词短语,用作定语,修饰most;what furnace fuel is allowed=the furnace fuel that is allowed,是一名词性从句,用作of的宾语。what=the...that,在此是缩合连接代词。这种what在英语中不乏其例,再如:
(2)I gave him what money I had with me. (what money=the money that)
(3)Lend me what books you can. (what books=the books that)
5 what在此是非标准英语
有读者问: 有这样一句话:
(1)We must step in any matter what does not agree with principle.
what在此是什么词类? 它起什么作用?
what在此可看作一关系代词,在其所引导的定语从句中用作主语,它的先行词是matter。what的这种用法一般被认为是非标准英语或方言。它相当于that, which或whom,可指代事物,也可指代人及动物,如:
(2)Well, when we got there I went to the basket what had the vittles in it. (vittles是victuals的俗体)
(3)You seemed to live so happily with him. It's that what made me timid.
(4)You're looking at a man what ain't straining.
(5)I had a horse what wouldn't go.
必须指出,这样用what是不宜仿效的。
6 应是whoever,不是who
有读者问: 有这样一道选择题:
(1)_____ will take part in the English contest will be announced at tomorrow's meeting.
A.Whoever B. Who
C.No matter who D. That
请问答案应是A还是B,还是A,B均可?
答案应是A。意指whoever的who现已比较古旧,一般只见于格言或谚语中,如:
(2)Who breaks pays.
(3)Who is not for us is against us.
顺便提一下,古旧的whom亦可意指whomever, 实例如:
(4)Whom the gods love die young. 红颜薄命。