词语分析和比较
1 黑奴与士兵的语言
1 黑奴与士兵的语言
有一读者问：我读了一本英汉对照的电影剧本《飘》，其中有些书写形式让我感到奇怪，例如：
(1)I'se de one dat sez when it's time to quit.
为什么不用 I'm,而用 I'se ?这里’se 指什么？又如：
(2)Soldier:（crying out）Gimme somethin' fo' pain!
这里的逗号的应用原则是什么？括号中为何不用 cryin' out?
首先必须指出，以上句（1）是黑奴的语言；句（2）是士兵的口语。他们讲的都不是标准英语。上述句（1）中的 'se=is，黑人常用 I'se 表示 I'm。其它如 de=the, dat=that, sez=says 也都是黑人常用的语言。另外，黑人英语还常吃掉首音和尾音，如：
(3)‘Estan’ sukkuh briah patch w'en blackberry ripe.（=She stands like a brier patch when the blackberries are ripe.）
关于上述句（2）中的 somethin' 和 fo'，请注意这里的“’”不是逗号，而是省略号，表示其前或其后省去了字母所代表的音。表示省略其前字母的有如上述句（1）中的 'se （省去其前的字母 i）和句（3）中的 'E （省去其前的S）和 w'en （省去其前的字母 h）。表示省去其后的字母，有如上述句（2）中的 somethin' （省去其后的字母 g）和 fo' （省去其后的字母 r）即是两个很典型的例子。此外，上述句（3）中的 stan' 也是省去其后字母（ds）的一例。
2 as与like的比较
关于as与like有什么异同，是中国学生在学习英语过程中常遇到的一个问题。在这里，我们愿意就这个问题谈谈我们的一些认识。
让我们先看看as和like的相异之处，因为，相对地说，二者的相异之处比较明显易懂。由于as可以用作连词、关系代词、副词和介词，所以我们就按此顺序讨论如下：
1. 连词as表时间时，不可代之以like, 如：
(1)As I was going out, it began to rain.
(2)He returned home as I was leaving.
连词as表原因时，不可代之以like，如：
(3)He stayed at home as he was ill.
(4)As the last bus had left, we returned on foot.
连词as表“随着”时，也不可代之以like，如：
(5)As he grew richer he grew more ambitious.
(6)One advances in modesty as one advances in knowledge.
连词as表“虽然”时不可代之以like，如：
(7)Worn out as they were, smiles and satisfaction showed on their faces.
(8)I cannot tell you, father, much as I would like to.
在下面的句子结构中，连词as意谓“如同”，但也不可代之以like，如：
(9)She's musical, as her mother was.
(10)As two is to one, so is twelve to six.
此外，有些固定结构如according as, as...as, so...as, in so far as, in as much as等中的as亦均不可代之以like。
2. 关系代词as不可代之以like，如：
(11)As is announced in today's papers, all the schools will reopen on 15 February.
(12)Such men as heard him praised him.
(13)The present owner is a keen art collector, as were several of her ancestors.
3. as用作副词时不可代之以like，如：
(14)He is nearly as tall as his father.
(15)I can walk as far without getting tired.
4. as用作介词意谓“作为”时不可代之以like，如：
(16)I work as a hotel receptionist.
(17)My duty as a worker triumphed for this reason over my civic conscience. （as a worker=as a worker's duty）
(18)Who's used this knife as a screw-driver?
现在再看看like不可代之以as的情况：
1. like用作动词时自然不可代之以as，如：
(19)I'm hungry, I'd like some hot food.
2. like用作名词时自然也不可代之以as，如：
(20)In New York like seeks like .
3. like用作形容词时也不可代之以as，如：
(21)They are as like as two peas.
4. like用作副词时也不可代之以as，如：
(22)He's an old fellow, like, and he can't, like , walk very far on his own, like.
5. 下面句子中用作介词的like也不可代之以as:
(23)That's just like him. （like=typical of）
(24)What is Shanghai like now? 现在上海的情况如何？
(25)It doesn't look like mine. （与look固定搭配）
(26)It's raining like the devil. （like the devil, like hell, like anything等皆是固定词组）
(27)You mustn't think like that. （like that也是一固定词组）
(28)My first feeling was how very like each other were John Elias and Jocob Stein. （like可与very, most等表程度的副词连用，as则不可）
上面所讲的都是as与like不可相互代替的相异之处。下面让我们看看as与like有何相同之处，以及在什么情况下二者可以相互代替。
as与like的相同处或可相互代替之处多表现在二者皆用作介词并皆意谓“像”或“如同”之时。这种情况大致可分为下列四类：
1. as与like皆可用在系表结构中，如：
(29)His face was as a mask of gauze through which nothing was quite clearly visible.
(30)The shock to me was as that of a thunderbolt.
(31)The people no longer came to admire his work; the princes no longer paid him honour or brought him gifts: and he became as one forgotten in the world.
上述句子中的as皆可代之以like，但as的意思近乎“简直是”，句（31）中的as尤其是这个意思；like则只是意谓“像”而已，而且可被表程度的副词所修饰。另外，as似不及like通俗。
2. as与like皆可用在某些不及物动词之后，如：
(32)Though an ex-serviceman, he lives as a man in active service.
(33)We lived and fought among the people as “fish in water”.
上面两句中的as皆可代之以like而意义不变。但请注意下面一句中的as虽与like同义，却不可代之以like：
(34)All rose as one man. （as one man或as one已成为固定词组，故不可代之以like）
3. as与like有时也可用在“及物动词+宾语”之后，如：
(35)He treats his wife as a child. （或用like）
亦可用在这种句子的被动结构中，如：
(36)He was dressed as a woman. （或用like）
4. 在同位结构中，有时用as或like均可，如：
(37)Some animals, as dogs and cats, eat meat. （亦可用like。as在此相当于such as）
当as和like同作连词而且意义相同（皆意谓“如同”）时，二者一般皆可相互替代，如：
(38)Like I told you, it's an offer I can't refuse. （=as）
(39)Do it like I do it. （=as; like I do it也可改作like me）
(40)We can't have everybody talking at once. We'll have to have “Hands up” like at school. （=as at school）
顺便提及，连词like还可以用来代替as if，如：
(41)It looks like he's feeling sick.
(42)She's spending money like there was no tomorrow.
但请注意上述句中的连词like只用在非正式文体中，尤多用于美国英语。最后，请注意下面各对句子中as与like的不同意义：
(43)He acts as a teacher. （意为他本人是一位教师）
He acts like a teacher. （意为他本人不是一位教师）
(44)They talked as old friends. （意为他们是老朋友）
They talked like old friends. （意为他们不是老朋友）
(45)He died as a hero. （意为他作为英雄而死去）
He died like a hero. （意为他英雄般地死去了）
(46)He treats me as an intimate friend.（意为我是他的密友）
He treats me like an intimate friend. （我不是他的密友）
3 这里用 as 或 what 都对
有一读者问：有这样一道选择题：
Things were not_________they seemed to be.
A.as B.what
答案是A，但what难道不对吗？
as 与 what 都对，只是前者意谓“如、像”，强调一般关系，后者则比较强调具体事物。
4 because, since, as, for, because of, on account of
有一读者问：because, since, for, because of, on account of 有什么区别？
because 和 since 意指“因为”时都是从属连词，because 表示直接理由，常用以回答 why，语气较强，实例如：
(1)I can't go, because I'm busy.
(2)Because no one tended the trees, a large number died.
注意上述句（2）可变为强调结构如下：
(3)It was because no one tended the trees that a large number died.（强调结构中的 because 不可代之以 since 或 as）
since 常相当于汉语的“既然”，其语气弱于 because，实例如：
(4)Since we've got a few minutes to wait for the train, let's have a cup of coffee.
注意有时并不能译作“既然”，如：
(5)Aircraft noise is a particular problem here since we're close to the airport.（since 在此可代之以 as）
顺便提一下，从属连词 as 亦可表示“因为”，但其语气更弱，常有其所表的原因或理由较为明显的含义，实例如：
(6)As he was not feeling well, he had to stay at home.
(7)I am going to bed, as I'm very tired.
for 亦可意指“因为”，但它不是从属连词，而是一等立连词，常用以表示上文未提到的附加的或补充性的理由，其前常有一逗号，实例如：
(8)It will rain, for the barometer is falling.（注意此处的 for 不可代之以表直接理由的 because）
for 表示补充性理由时可放在括号之中，如：
(9)The old man raked the fire together with an old stair-rod, and having trimmed his smoky lamp （for it was night）, with the stem of his pipe, put it into his mouth again.
for 还可引导一个独立句甚至一个段落，如：
(10)For , you see, they trusted their own sense of touch very much.（摘自The Blind Men and the Elephant ， for 引导独立句）
(11)For whatever the outcome of that game, the Koreans will be the champions.（摘自China Daily ,for 引导一个段落）
for 还可用作介词，意指“由于”，较为正式，常用以表示感情、赏罚等，实例如：
(12)He shouted for joy.
(13)He was rewarded for saving the girl's life.
(14)The driver was punished for the accident.
注意下列一类的常见搭配：
(15)Maxie Curie is famous for her contribution to science.（famous for 是常见搭配）
(16)You cannot see the wood for the trees.（for 常与 cannot ... 搭配）
because of 与 on account of 都是短语介词，意为“由于”，但后者似乎常用于正式文体中，试比较：
(17)He did not come to school because of illness.
(18)He was absent from school on account of illness.
5 in order to与in order that有何区别？
有一读者问： 下面两个句子有什么区别？
(1)He rushed out into the street in order to look at the wedding procession.
(2)He rushed out into the street in order that he might look at the wedding procession.
是否句（2）比较口语化，句（1）比较文气？
恰恰相反。句（1）的in order to结构要比句（2）的in order that结构简单明了，故在日常英语中多用句（1）。再如：
(3)She went out into the garden in order to look at the flowers.
(4)We go to school in order to learn.
同样，so as to亦较so that简明，如：
(5)He left early so as to be back on time.
(6)He listened carefully so as not to miss anything that was said.
但必须注意，以上含有in order to和so as to的句子中的主语同时也是in order to和so as to之后的原形动词的逻辑主语。如句（1）中的主语he同时也是in order to后的look at的逻辑主语。如果不是这样，则不可用in order to或so as to，而须用in order that或so that,如：
(7)He spoke slowly in order that everyone should understand.
(8)I stayed on so that he might not feel lonely.
顺便提及两点： 较之in order that, so that似乎更为常用； 不定式状语短语与分词短语不同，前者较相应的状语从句口语化，后者则较相应的状语从句文气。
6 这两个句子不属于同一句型
有一读者问： 有人认为下面两种结构同属于It is...that句型：
(1)It was his father that I saw.
(2)It is a wise father that knows his son.
你认为对吗？
上述两个句子的结构并不相同，不应说它们同属于一种句型。句（1）即是我们常说的强调结构。在这种强调结构中，that从句是先行词it的定语从句（也有人认为that从句是一主语从句）。句（2）是一句反语（其含义是： 这样的父亲是没有的）。重点在于It is a后的形容词。其that从句是一定语从句，修饰其前的名词father。
7 这两句中的a kind of是否同义？
有一读者问： 下面两句中的a kind of是否同义：
(1)She's a kind of doctor.
(2)It's a kind of bird.
这两个句子中的a kind of的意义并不相同。句（1）中的a kind of指人，意谓rather或in some way（颇有一点或有几分），往往有贬意，全句的意思是“她可以说是一个医生”或“她可以算是一个医生”。再如：
(3)I'm a kind of engineer. 我可算是一个工程师。
句（2）中的a kind of指物，意谓a member of a particular class（一种或属于某一类），并无贬义，全句的意思是“它是一种鸟”。再如：
(4)It's a kind of beetle. 它是一种甲虫。
8 mainly 与 main
有一读者问：九年义务教育初中英语教材每册中都有两个复习单元，其标题是 Mainly revision。 mainly 是一副词，revision 是一名词，这样连用对吗？是否应将 mainly 改为 main?
mainly，以及 chiefly, especially, only, just, simply 等，在语法上叫做焦点副词（focus adverbs)（参见《朗文英语语法》第271—272页），其功能是凸显或令人集中注意其后的名词。Mainly revision 的意思是“大部分是复习”，故不应改为 main revision（主要的复习）。再如：
(1)I saw a queue of people, mainly children and old men.
(2)I like all of Lu Xun's works, especially The True Story of Ar Q .
(3)Only Steve plays the piano.
(4)It was simply a matter of time.
(5)He's just a boy.
9 in spite of, though, although, even though
有一读者问：in spite of, though, even though 的区别如何？
in spite of 是一短语介词，常可译作“不顾、尽管、虽然”等，实例如：
(1)In spite of his injury, Ricardo will play in Saturday's match.
though 常用作连词，其义为“虽然、即使”等，实例如：
(2)He went out without an overcoat， though it was very cold.
（though=虽然）
(3)It is worth attempting though we fail.（though=即使）
though 还可用作副词，意为“不过、可是”等，实例如：
(4)I'm sorry about our quarrel, you began it, though .
even though 可以说是一个短语连词，其义为“即使，即令”，但要比 though （即使）的语气强，实例如：
(5)I shan't mind even though she doesn't come.
顺便提一下， although 也是意为“虽然”的一个连词，它较 though 正式，常用于句首，实例如：
(6)Although it was quite late, we went on with our work.
10 all the time 与 never seen
有一读者问：有这样两句话：
(1)They ain't got any Indians in Illinois. I never seen one damn Indian all the time I was out there.
all the time 应如何分析？又， never seen 之前是否省去了 have?
all the time 可看作一短语从属连词，用以引导一时间状语从句，再如：
(2)Unfortunately, it rained all the time we were there.
(3)He's just magnificent! I think you are the slyest girl I ever saw; you never once mentioned his name all the time you were here.
顺便提一下，下面句子中的 each time, every time, next time 等皆同样可看作短语从属连词：
(4)Each time I read this poem, I admire it the more.
(5)Every time I come, he is reading.
(6)Come and see me next time you are in town.
(7)He looked very happy last time I saw him.
现在再谈 seen。这里的 never seen 不等于 have never seen，因而其前并未省去 have。 seen 是社会下层人民所用的非正式英语，相当于规范英语中的过去一般时 saw。
用过去分词代替过去一般时，在英美一些小说或戏剧中是比较常见的现象，再如：
(8)I never seen nobody work hard.（在规范英语中 nobody 应改作 anybody）
(9)They taken whatever I had an' set fire to the place.（在规范英语中 taken 应改作 took， an' 应读作 and）
同样，上述句（1）中的 ain't 也是非正式英语，相当于 haven't。
11 American, Americans, an American
有一读者问：下面两句中的 Americans 和 American 有何不同：
(1)Americans speak English.
(2)They are American.
Americans 是复数名词，泛指“美国人”。American 在此是形容词，其义为“具有美国国籍的”。顺便注意下面两句话的区别：
(3)He is American.他是美国国籍。
(4)He is an American.他是具有美国血统的人。
12 这道题为什么应选in the end？
有一读者问： 有这样一道选择题：
(1)I'm sure he'll become a singer _____.
A. in a future B. in the end
C. at last D. finally
答案为B，可我觉得C和D也可以。请问B，C，D之间有什么区别呢？
finally, at last和in the end虽然皆可译作“最终”或“终于”，但它们的用法和含义并不完全相同。
finally的用法有二：一是表一系列事件中的最后一件，如：
(2)Finally the Internationale was sung.
另一种用法是表久已期待之事，有“终于”的含义，如：
(3)We waited and waited, and the train finally arrived.
at last 多表久已期望之事，其语气较为强烈，如：
(4)At last he got away.
(5)James has passed his exams at last .
in the end意味着经过多少周折而终于发生之事，如：
(6)In the end the Chinese team beat the Hungarian team 5:1.
(7)He tried many times to pass the examination, and in the end he succeeded.
(8)We made eight different plans for our holiday but in the end we went to Brighton again.
在上述三例中亦可用finally，但一般应将其放在谓语动词之前。基于上述分析，问题中所提的选项应用B (in the end)。
13 下面句子何者对， 何者错？
有一读者问： 下面几个句子中哪个是错误的：
(1)My sister paid 200 yuan for a new bike.
(2)My sister spent 200 yuan on a new bike.
(3)A new bike cost my sister 200 yuan.
(4)It took my sister 200 yuan to buy a new bike.
我认为上述句（4）也不错，因为我见过：
(5)It takes a lot of money to buy a house as big as that.
不知你以为如何？
上述句（1）、（2）、（3）无争议，都对。句（5）也不算错，虽然似乎尚未得到公认；句（4）也许有人这样说，但欠严谨。
14 rather than应如何分析？
有一读者问： rather than 是连词还是介词？如是连词，那么它是并列连词还是从属连词？
关于 rather than 可相当于什么词类各家说法不一。有的说它只相当于介词。有的说它不但可用作介词，也可用作并列连词，有的则说它可用作介词，可用作并列连词，而且也可用作从属连词。我们比较倾向于最后一种见解。现将 rather than 的各种用法举例如下。让我们先谈 rather than 用作并列连词的情况，因为这种情况最为常见。作为并列连词，它可连接名词、代词、形容词、谓语动词、状语、不定式等。
1. 连接名词或名词短语，如：
(1)I like peaches rather than apples. （连接名词 peaches 与 apples）
(2)I think I'll have a cold drink rather than coffee. （连接名词短语 a cold drink 与名词 coffee）
(3)Vague hope, rather than real confidence, was the note in their conversation. （连接名词短语 vague hope 与 real confidence）
2. 连接代词，如：
(4)I, rather than you, should do it. （连接代词 I 与 you。 注意句中有两个逗号，故而rather than 亦可看作介词）
3. 连接形容词，如：
(5)The colour seems green rather than blue. （连接形容词 green 与 blue）
(6)The shoes are comfortable rather than pretty. （连接形容词 comfortable 与 pretty）
4. 连接谓语动词，如：
(7)He ran rather than walked. （连接谓语动词 ran 与 walked）
(8)She telephoned rather than wrote. （连接谓语动词 telephoned 与 wrote）
5. 连接状语，如：
(9)...implicating them, this time subtly rather than powerfully. （连接用作状语的副词 subtly 与 powerfully）
(10)We rely mainly on our own efforts rather than on outside help. （连接用作状语的介词短语 on our own efforts 与 on outside help）
6. 连接不定式，如：
(11)He will die rather than submit. （连接不带 to 的不定式 die 与submit）
(12)He wanted to sunbathe rather than swim. （连接带 to 的不定式 to sunbathe 与不带 to 的不定式 swim。 swim 前亦可用 to, 但常可省去不用）
(13)Competition is bound to increase rather than diminish. （连接 to increase 与 diminish）
(14)They cause young people to think and reason rather than just sit and listen. （连接 to think and reason 与 just sit and listen）
由于 rather than 已变成一个固定词组，所以它亦可连接限定动词形式和不带 to 的不定式，如：
(15)He died rather than live with such a mistress. （连接限定动词形式 died 与不带 to 的不定式 live）
(16)She had wandered away rather than be with her friends. （连接 had wandered 与 be）
“rather than+不带 to 的不定式”结构还可置于句首，以示强调，如：
(17)Rather than cause trouble, he left.
(18)Rather than go by air, I'd take the slowest train.
(19)Rather than get money in such a dishonest way, he would beg in the streets.
(20)Rather than have had this grievous wrong to confess, she would gladly have died.
7. 连接 -ing 形式，如：
(21)They were screaming rather than singing. （连接现在分词 screaming 与 singing）
(22)I always prefer starting early, rather than leaving everything to the last minute. （连接动名词短语 starting early 与 leaving everything to the last minute. rather than 前有逗号，故亦可看作介词（参见例[4]）
现在再让我们看看 rather than 相当于介词的情况。有的人将上述第一种情况中的 rather than 一律看作介词。我们则倾向于 rather than 作为介词只限于用在动名词之前，而且多置于一句之首，如：
(23)Rather than being so quick to knock an attempt at change, Mr.Rustin should extend it the same leeway.
(24)Rather than confining the artist's works to the museums, why not ask him to take his inspiration and apply it to our immediate environment?
(25)Rather than giving prominence to one or two heroes as most films do, Quivering Golden Wings portrays a group of admirable young people.
但“rather than+动名词”结构也可用在句末，如：
(26)Is there any chance of spring publication, rather than waiting till fall?
(27)Their actions precipitated the war rather than averting it.
最后一种情况是 rather than 用作从属连词，表示一种比较关系。这本是它的原职，但在当代英语中，它作为从属连词引导一个从句的用法已经是比较罕见了。这里只举二三例如下：
(28)Rather than you say anything, I would speak to the manager myself.
在正式英语中，这种从句则用 should, 如：
(29)She would die rather than Zora should know.
rather than 之后有时有 that, 如：
(30)I should thank you rather than that you thank me.
最后，请注意下列几点：
1. rather than 之后的不定式有时可带 to, 如上述例（12）中的 swim，但在多数情况下是不带 to 的。
2. rather than 之后有时既可用不定式，亦可用动名词，如：
(31)We ought to check up, rather than just accept what he says. （不定式亦可代之以 accepting）
3. rather than 后接不定式时常表主观上不愿干什么，如上述例（11）、（12）等，但如其后接限定动词形式，则表一种客观上的否定，如上述例（7）与例（8）。
4. 有些语法家反对使用 prefer...rather than,而认为必须用 prefer...to...但事实胜于雄辩，连不少语法书与词典都有用 prefer...rather than的例句。上述例（22）即是一例。再如：
(32)My son prefers watching TV rather than reading books.
这个句子中的 rather than 自然可被 to 所代替，但请看：
(33)I prefer to stay home rather than go.
这里则不可用 to go 或 to to go, 而非用 rather than 不可了。
5. 顺便说一下，英语中与 rather than 相似的还有 as well as, as much as, more than, sooner than （rather than 的口语形式）， other than 等。它们都有相当于何种词类的问题。
15 两句中的rather than的功能不同
有一读者问： 有这样一道题：
(1)I'd like to work it out all by myself rather than_________someone else for help.
A. ask B. to ask C. asking D. will ask
答案选A。A项当然是对的，但我认为C项也对，例如《朗文英语语法》第574页上就有这样的句子：
(2)Rather than waste/wasting your time doing it yourself, why don't you call in a builder?
句（1）中的rather than应看做是短语等立（或并列）连词，故其后应用ask。句（2）中的rather than则既可看作等立连词，亦可看作介词，故其后既可接waste，亦可接wasting。
16 这句话应如何理解？
有一读者问这样一句话：
(1)He takes the analytic tools that zoologists typically use to study animals and applies them to the study of humans.
应如何理解这句话？
这句话的意思是：他采取动物学家研究动物所常用的分析法并运用到人类研究中。你可能对 tools 一词感到困惑。 tools 在此不意谓具体的工具，而是意指“手段，方法”，再如：
(2)Textbooks became the essential tools of the teacher.
(3)We will investigate written tests as one of several assessment tools for children of different ages.
又， typically 的本义是“典型地，有代表性地”，但有时可简略地译之为“常”。
17 这句话又应如何理解？
有一读者问： 在《英语学习》上有一个绕口令：
Today is the tomorrow that yesterday you spent money like there was no.不知何解？
其意相当于“今朝有酒今朝醉”。需要指出的是： like在此=as（从属连词）；there was no=there was no that（即指tomorrow）。